Explaining Attitudes As Dependent Variable Education Essay

3.0 IntroductionThere are 12 subdivisions in this chapter. The first subdivision is an overview of the chapter. The 2nd subdivision discusses related theories used in this survey. Next, discusses variables and hypothesis used in this survey. The forth subdivision concentrating on Research Model and follow by population and samples used in this survey. Section six in this chapter explain the instrument used and section seven of this chapter explain briefly the measuring points used. Following subdivision discourse how the information aggregation done and follow by pilot survey and the dependability trial consequence for the pilot survey. Section eleven discuss about the information analysis and near by the sum-up of the chapter.3.1 Related TheoryIn explicating attitudes as dependent variable ( DV ) , this subdivision will discourse Diffusion of Innovation ( Rogers, 1995 ) and Technology Acceptance Model ( Davis et al, 1989 ) . For the independent variable ( IV ) , this subdivision pre sents sensed usefulness, sensed easiness of usage and external factors that comprise learning manners, web log competency and instructors ‘ demographic ( i.e. gender, twelvemonth of learning experience and instruction degree ) .3.1.1 Diffusion of Innovation Model ( DOI )Harmonizing to Rogers ( 1995 ) , a individual attitude towards a new engineering is a cardinal component in its diffusion. Rogers Innovation Decision Process theory provinces that inventions diffusion is a procedure that occurs overtime through five phases ( Figure 3.1 ) : Knowledge – the individual becomes cognizant of an invention and has some thought of how it functions. Persuasion – the individual forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the invention. Decision – the individual engages in activities that lead to a pick to follow or reject the invention. Implementation – the individual puts an invention into usage. Confirmation – the individual evaluates the consequences of an innovation-decision already made.A Diffusion_of_Innovations_Theory-1.png Figure 3.1: Diffusion of Innovation Model ( Rogers, 1995 ) As Rogers ( 1995 ) had stated that instructors positive attitudes exhibit their induction into the innovation-decision procedure, this theory appears relevant for usage in survey instructors ‘ attitudes towards web log usage in learning. Teachers may hold already gone through the Knowledge and Persuasion phases ( Rogers, 1995 ) . They likely proceed to the Decision stage with the usage of web log in learning. Theorists have indicated, attitudes can frequently announce future decision-making behavior ( Ajzen & A ; Fishbein, 1980 ) . Zimbardo and Leippe ( 1991 ) defined attitude as an rating temperament toward some object based on knowledges, affectional responses, behaviors, and behavioral purposes. Harmonizing to Albirini ( 2004 ) and Chao ( 2005 ) , attitude is an informed sensitivity to react and consist three concept: Affectional – TheA affectiveA constituent of attitude is said to dwell of a individual ‘s rating of, wishing of, or emotional response to some state of affairs, object, or individual. Affectional responses reflect one ‘s attitude with esthesiss of pleasance, unhappiness, or other degrees of physical rousing. Cognitive – TheA cognitiveA constituent of an attitude is conceptualized as a individual ‘s factual cognition of the state of affairs, object, or individual, including oneself. In other words, the cognitive constituent refers to how much a individual knows about a subject, such as computing machines. Behavioural – TheA behaviouralA constituent of an attitude involves the individual ‘s open behavior directed toward a state of affairs, object, or individual. Therefore, this survey considered the three concepts of attitudes. Based on past researches, the Technology Acceptance Model ( TAM ) by Davis et Al. ( 1989 ) has widely used to look into users attitudes towards new engineering. Davis et Al. ( 1989 ) stressed that attitude of a user towards a system was a major determiner of whether the user will really utilize or reject the system. The following subdivision discusses the Technology Acceptance Model.3.1.2 Technology Acceptance Model ( TAM )Harmonizing to Davis et Al. ( 1989 ) , user attitude is influenced by two major beliefs: perceived usefulness and sensed easiness of usage, with sensed easiness of usage holding a direct influence on sensed utility. Finally, both these beliefs were suggested were straight influence by the system design features represented by external variables ( Figure 3.2 ) . External Variables Perceived Usefulness Perceived Ease of Use Attitude towards Behaviour Behavioral Intention to Use Actual System Use Figure 3.2: Technology Acceptance Model ( Davis et al. , 1989 ) External variables typically include system features, user preparation, user engagement in design, and the nature of the execution procedure ( Venkatesh & A ; Davis, 1996 ) . As this research focuses on instructors and instruction, the external variables refer to learning manners, web log competency, and instructors ‘ feature which comprise gender, old ages of learning experience and degree of instruction.3.1.3 External Factors3.1.3.1 Teaching Manners As cited by Salem ( 2001 ) , learning manners refer to the processs or procedures adopted and employed by the instructor in order to accomplish the daily aims of the lesson. They are besides the conglobations of one ‘s positions, strong beliefs, and attacks on the attainment of maximal consequences in the teaching-learning procedure. Teaching manners are personal properties of a instructor and vary from one instructor to another. Harmonizing to Kaplan and Kies ( 1995 ) , learning manners refers to â€Å" a instructor ‘s personal behavior and media used to convey informations to or have it from the scholar † and involves the execution of the instructor ‘s doctrine about instruction ( Conti, 2004 ) . Teaching manners were classified in different ways. Salem ( 2001 ) classified learning manners as ocular, audile, group, kinesthetic, single and tactile. Ocular instruction manner – The instructor presents the lesson through images, studies, diagrams, graphs, or other related illustrations. Auditory learning manner – The instructor lectures or gives unwritten accounts most of the clip. Group learning manner – The instructor adopts group interaction and group treatment techniques in the learning the lessons. Kinesthetic instruction manner – The instructor engages the pupils in physical motions as they learn the topic. Individual instruction manner – The instructor requires single recitations, single undertakings, assignments, etc. Tactile learning manner – The instructor adopts â€Å" hands-on † activities. While Salem ( 2001 ) offered six instruction manners, Heimlich ( 1990 ) suggested learning manners into four spheres ; Expert, Provider, Facilitator and Enabler. Teacher with an â€Å" expert † preferred manner are capable oriented and seek efficiency in information sharing chiefly through talk. The â€Å" supplier † instructors are learner-cantered and desire effectivity in learning. Methods built-in to their manner of learning include group treatment, presentation and guided activities. The â€Å" facilitator † instructors are teacher-cantered and the methods of direction depend on capable content ; more than on the scholars. The â€Å" enabler † manner of instruction is really learner-cantered in that the scholars define both the activity and the procedure in the acquisition environment. Cano et Al. ( 1992 ) , Raven et Al. ( 1993 ) and Whittington and Raven ( 1995 ) used Heimlich ( 1990 ) definition and point used to determine the topics ‘ preferred instruction manner. This instrument defines two spheres, sensitiveness ( ability of the instructor to ‘sense ‘ the shared features of the group of scholars ) and inclusion ( teacher ‘s willingness and ability to use techniques to heighten the larning experience based on the groups ‘ features ) . The low inclusion and low sensitiveness quarter-circle is labelled â€Å" expert. † A instructor who scores in the low inclusion and high sensitiveness quarter-circle is labelled the â€Å" supplier. † The high inclusions and low sensitiveness quarter-circle is labelled â€Å" facilitator. † The concluding dimension is the high inclusion and high sensitiveness quarter-circle and instructors with this manner are labelled â€Å" enabler. † Compared to others definition, Grasha ( 1996 ) is the 1 that popular among recent research workers ( Dugas, 2005 ; Kiong, 2006 ; Norzila et al. , 2007 ; Vaughn and Baker, 2008 ; Zamri et al. , 2009 ; Ahmad and Panai, 2010 ; and Kassaian and Ayatollahi, 2010 ) . Grasha ( 1994 ) place five instruction manners ; Expert, Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator and Delegator. Expert – Possess cognition and expertness that pupil demand. Strive to keep position as an expert among pupils by exposing elaborate cognition and by disputing pupils to heighten their competency. Concerned with conveying information and insuring that pupils are good prepared. Formal Authority – Possesses position among pupils because of cognition and function as a module member. Concerned with supplying positive and negative feedback, set uping learning ends, outlooks, and regulations of behavior for pupils. Concerned with the correct, acceptable and standard ways to make things and with supplying pupils with the construction they need to larn. Personal Model – Beliefs in â€Å" instruction by personal illustration † and established a paradigm for how to believe and act. Oversees, ushers, and directs by demoing how to make things, and encouraging pupils to detect and so to emulate the teacher ‘s attack. Facilitator – Emphasized the personal nature of teacher-student interactions. Guides and directs pupils by inquiring inquiries, researching options, proposing options and promoting them to develop standards to do informed picks. Overall end is to develop in pupils the capacity for the independent action, enterprise, and duty. Work with pupils on undertakings in a advisory manner and attempts to supply every bit much as support and encouragement as possible. Delegator – Concerned with developing pupils capacity of map in a independent manner. Students work independently on undertakings or as portion of independent squads. The instructor is available at the petition of pupils as a resource individual. Table 3.1 Summary of Teaching Style ModelModelCategorized of Teaching StylesWriterHeimlich ( 1990 ) Expert Supplier Facilitator Enabler Cano et al. , 1992 ; Raven et al. , 1993 ; Whittington and Raven, 1995 Grasha ( 1996 ) Expert Formal Authority Personal Model Facilitator Delegator Dugas, 2005 ; Kiong, 2006 ; Norzila et al. , 2007 ; Vaughn and Baker, 2008 ; Zamri et al. , 2009 ; Ahmad and Panai, 2010 ; and Kassaian and Ayatollahi, 2010 ) Salem ( 2001 ) Ocular Auditory Group Kinesthetic Individual Tactile Salem ( 2001 ) , Soliven ( 2003 ) 3.1.3.2 Blog Competence Previous research suggests that instructors ‘ attitudes towards engineerings are besides related to instructors ‘ engineering competency. In their survey of the correlativity between instructors ‘ attitude and credence of engineering, Francis-Pelton and Pelton ( 1996 ) found that although many instructors believe computing machines are an of import constituent of a pupil ‘s instruction, their deficiency of cognition and experience lead to a deficiency of assurance to try to present them into their direction. Previous research has pointed to instructors deficiency of computing machine competency as a chief barrier to their credence and acceptance of ICT in developing states ( Al-Oteawi, 2002 ; Na, 1993 ; Pelgrum, 2001 ) . Albirini ( 2004 ) supported and widen the findings from old research. The bulk of respondents reported holding small or no competency in managing most of the computing machine maps needed by pedagogues. This determination did non supported the premise that instructors with low degree of computing machine competency normally have negative attitudes toward computing machines ( Summers, 1990 ) . On the other manus, Albirini ( 2004 ) found that computing machine competency was significantly related to instructors attitudes supports the theoretical and empirical statements made for the importance of computing machine competency in finding instructors attitudes toward ICT ( Al-Oteawi, 2002 ; Berner, 2003 ; Bulkeley, 1993 ; Na, 1993 ) . In add-on, the relationship between computing machine attitudes and competency suggests that higher computing machine competency may further the already positive attitudes of instructors and finally ensue in their usage of computing machines within the schoolroom. In this survey, web log competency mean by web log cognition and blogging accomplishments. 3.1.3.3 Teacher ‘s Demographics Besides Teaching Styles and Blog Competence as the external factors in this research, instructors ‘ demographics besides interested to research. Teachers ‘ demographics comprise gender, instructors ‘ instruction experiences and instruction degree. Gender: There are turning concerns about the low engagement of adult females in information engineering related callings ( Green, 1996 ; Idowu, Adagunodo & A ; Popoola, 2003 ) . Surveies have repeatedly found gender differences in attitudes towards IT. For case, Venkatesh and Morris ( 2000 ) and Drup ( 2004 ) found that males had more positive attitudes towards the usage of computing machines than females. Others such as Ray, Sormunen and Harris ( 1999 ) found the contrary to be the instance. However, in contrast to both sides, research workers such as Busch ( 1995 ) , Idowu ( 1997 ) , Asan ( 2000 ) , and Tiamiyu, Ajayi and Olatokun ( 2002 ) found no important relationship between gender and attitudes towards IT. Teaching Experiences: Surveies have shown that people who have used IT for some clip exhibit more positive attitudes towards IT ( Christensen, 1997 ; Gilmore, 1998 ) . Igbaria and Chakrabarti ( 1990 ) besides found that computing machine experience significantly affected attitudes toward computing machines. Christensen ( 1997 ) observed that with acquaintance, anxiousnesss and frights tend to diminish and assurance additions, and that people with anterior positive experience tend to be more willing to follow a engineering than those who have had either a anterior negative experience or no experience at all. In this survey, the research workers focus on learning experiences. Education Degree: Most of the instructors in Secondary Schools in Malaysia are in degree degree. Merely a few of them merely keep Diploma and Masters even Doctorate. Hamdan ( 2007 ) investigated the attitudes towards e-learning found that there are important difference in educational degree towards e-learning.3.2 VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESIS3.2.1 AttitudeRefering the significance of attitudes, different research workers gave different but somehow related definitions of the word. Aiken ( 1980 ) described attitudes as â€Å" erudite sensitivities to react positively or negatively to certain objects, state of affairss, constructs, or individuals † . Besides that, other research workers used psychological concepts to explicate attitudes. Loyd and Gressard ( 1984 ) , for illustration, divided the concept ‘attitudes ‘ into four different variables, which are: ( I ) computing machine liking ; ( two ) computing machine anxiousness ; ( three ) computing machine assurance, and: ( four ) perceived utility of the computing machine. There are research workers who seemed to be satisfied with Loyd and Gressard ‘s definition, like Koohang ( 1989 ) and Necessary and Parish ( 1996 ) . Furthermore, Zimbardo and Leippe ( 1991 ) defined attitude as an rating temperament toward some object based on knowledges, affectional responses, behaviors, and behavioral purposes. Likewise, Chao ( 2005 ) and Albirini ( 2006 ) defines attitude as an informed sensitivity to react and consist three concept, affectional, knowledge and behavioral. Besides that, Agbonlahor ( 2008 ) defined that attitude towards utilizing computing machines in instruction is a perceptual experience of the value of the usage of computing machines for his/her ain productiveness, every bit good as for the benefit of his/her pupils. Therefore, in this peculiar survey, attitude towards web log usage in instruction is a perceptual experience of the value of the usage of web log for his/her ain productiveness, every bit good as for the benefit of his/her pupils. Attitudes in this survey besides concept with affectional, cognitive and behavioral ( Zimbardo and Leippe, 1991 ; Chao, 2005 ; and Albirini, 2006 ; Agbonlahor, 2008. Several information systems surveies have identified attitude as one of the strongest factors act uponing successful IT usage in any administration ( Christensen, 1997 ; Agarwal & A ; Prasad, 1998 ; Gilmore, 1998 ) . Furthermore, research workers have found that although technological and fiscal barriers are rather important in the procedures of incorporating IT into instruction, pedagogues ‘ attitudes is even more so ( Gilmore, 1998 ) . Attitudes have been found to impact perceptual experiences, and therefore, rates of acceptance and extent of use of IT ( Agarwal & A ; Prasad, 1998 ; Pajo, 2000 ) . Albirini ( 2006 ) investigated the attitudes of high school instructors in Syrian toward ICT and found that participants had positive attitudes toward ICT in instruction. The respondents ‘ positive attitudes were apparent within the affectional, cognitive and behavioral spheres. The determination of research was similar with those of Hong and Koh ( 2002 ) , Psillosb et Al. ( 2003 ) , Shapka and Ferrari ( 2003 ) , Teo et Al. ( 2008 ) , Agbonlahor ( 2008 ) , Chen ( 2008 ) and Tezci ( 2009 ) .3.2.2 Perceived UsefulnessDavis ( 1985 ) defined sensed utility as the grade to which an person believes that utilizing a peculiar system would heighten his or her occupation public presentation. Perceived Usefulness is proposed to hold a direct impact on instructors ‘ attitude towards utilizing web log in instruction because instructors will be more positive to utilize system if it can give benefits to them. The sensed utility of computing machines can act upon attitudes toward computing machines, and the sum of assurance a instructor possesses in utilizing computing machines may act upon his or her execution in the schoolroom ( Gressard & A ; Loyd, 1985 ) . Teo et Al. ( 2007 ) found that pre-service instructors ‘ Perceived Usefulness was important in finding computing machine attitudes. This determination contributes to old research ( Legris et al. 2003 ; Huang & A ; Liaw 2005 ; Pituch & A ; Lee 2006 ) that found Perceived Usefulness to be a cardinal determiner on computing machine attitudes. If pupils perceived the utility of computing machine and experience confident in utilizing it, this will take to more positive attitudes ( Noiwan, Piyawat, & A ; Norcio, 2005 ) . Tg. Faekah et Al. ( 2008 ) found that perceived utility besides showed strong correlativities with attitude, analogue to old surveies by Garland and Noyes ( 2004 ) , Gao ( 2005 ) , Havelka ( 2004 ) , Hunt and Bohlin ( 1993 ) , McGrath and Thurston ( 1992 ) , McInerney, McInerney and Sinclair ( 1990 ) , Mitra and Steffensmeier ( 2000 ) , Teo ( 2006 ) and Yaghi ( 1997 ) . Student attitude toward computing machines is besides linked with how utile they think the computing machine is and the sum of experience they have in utilizing computing machines. Therefore, it is hypothesized: H1: A instructors ‘ Perceived Usefulness of web log in learning affects his/her attitude towards utilizing web log in instruction.3.2.3 Perceived Ease of UseDavis ( 1985 ) defined sensed easiness of usage as the grade to which an person believes that utilizing a peculiar system would be free of physical and mental attempt. Teo et Al. ( 2007 ) besides found that pre-service instructors ‘ Perceived Ease of Use had important effects on computing machine attitudes. The important relationship between Perceived Ease of Use and computing machine attitudes is a logical one and supports current research that positive computing machine attitude are associated with Perceived Ease of Use. Sime and Priestley ( 2005 ) found that pre-service instructors ‘ attitudes towards the usage of an ICT tool were influenced by how easy it was to utilize the tool and that they were loath to utilize a tool that seemed hard to utilize. Therefore, it is hypothesized: H2: A instructors ‘ Perceived Ease of Use of web log in learning affects his/her attitude towards utilizing web log in instruction.3.2.4 Blog CompetenceA big figure of surveies showed that instructors ‘ computing machine competency is a important forecaster of their attitudes toward computing machines ( Berner, 2003 ; Na, 1993 ; Summers, 1990 ; Albirini, 2006 ) . Summers ( 1990 ) found that instructors with low degree of computing machine competency normally have negative attitudes toward computing machines. On the other manus, the fact that computing machine competency was significantly related to instructors ‘ attitudes supports the theoretical and empirical statements made for the importance of computing machine competency in finding instructors ‘ attitudes toward ICT ( Al-Oteawi, 2002 ; Berner, 2003 ; Na, 1993 ; Albirini, 2006, Zhou et al. , 2010 ) . In add-on, the relationship between computing machine attitudes and competency suggests that higher computing machine competency may further the already positive attitudes of instructors and finally ensue in their usage of computing machines within the schoolroom. Therefore, it is hypothesized: H3: There is a important and positively relationship between instructors ‘ web log competency and their attitudes towards web log usage in learning3.2.5 Teaching StyleThis survey follow definition by Salem ( 2001 ) that refer learning manners to the processs or procedures adopted and employed by the instructor in order to accomplish the daily aims of the lesson. Grasha ‘s Model ( 1994 ) was used in this survey. Kiong ( 2006 ) found that the instruction manners of the lectors who teach portion clip instruction programme are more on facilitator, expert and delegator manner. Norliza et Al. ( 2007 ) showed that the three most dominant instruction manners of the lectors perceived by the pupils were Expert, Personal Model and Delegator. It was besides found that the pupils ‘ most preferable instruction manner was Facilitator. Zamri et Al. ( 2009 ) showed that the three instruction manners often used by lector were the personal theoretical account, facilitator and the delegator manner. Kassaian and Ayatollahi ( 2010 ) found that Formal Authority, Expert and Delegator were the most dominant instruction manners. A important difference exists in formal authorization and personal theoretical account among the lectors who teach theories based on learning experience and academic subject. However, the differences of learning manners merely occurred among the lectors who teach practical topic in delegator manner based on learning experience. ( Kiong, 2006 ) . However, Zamri et Al. ( 2009 ) found that there were important differences of the instruction manners based on the topics taught for the expert, formal authorization and the personal theoretical account. The survey besides showed that there was a important average difference for learning manners based on instructors experience for the facilitator manner. On the other manus, found that there were no important differences among the lectors who teach practical topic based on academic subject in their instruction manner ( Kiong, 2006 ) and school session and option ( Zamri et al. , 2009 ) . From the old research, it is hypothesized that: H4a: There is important and positively relationship between instructors with adept manner and their attitudes toward web log usage in instruction. H4b: There is important and positively relationship between instructors with formal authorization manner and their attitudes toward web log usage in instruction. H4c: There is important and positively relationship between instructors with personal theoretical account manner and their attitudes toward web log usage in instruction. H4d: There is important and positively relationship between instructors with facilitator manner and their attitudes toward web log usage in instruction. H4e: There is important and positively relationship between instructors with delegator manner and their attitudes toward web log usage in instruction.3.2.6 Teachers ‘ DemographicsSeveral research workers have found that females have more negative attitudes towards computing machine and ICT ( Akkoyunlu & A ; Orhan, 2003 ; Miura, 1987 ; Murpy, Coover & A ; Owen, 1989 ; Uzunboylu, 2004 ; Venkatesh & A ; Davis, 2000 ) . Kubiatko & A ; Halakova ( 2009 ) found that males have more positive attitudes toward ICT than females. Then, Kubiatko et Al. ( 2010 ) revealed the same consequence that males have more positive attitudes towards ICT as compared to females. On the other custodies, Teo ( 2008 ) found that no important differences were found in the survey, both male and females pre-service instructors at all ages were similar in their attitudes towards the computing machine and Cavas et Al. ( 2009 ) on their survey on scientific disciplines instructors in Turkish primary schools besides found that no important different between male and female instructors on a ttitude towards engineering. Experience were another factor that ever selected by research worker to analyze. Computer experience has been the most normally cited variable correlated to positive attitudes ( Dupagne & A ; Krendel, 1992 ; Woodrow, 1992 ; Chou 1997 ; Levine & A ; Donitsa-Schmidt 1998 ; Ropp 1999 ; Yang, Mohamed, & A ; Beyerbach, 1999 ; Winter, Chudoba & A ; Gutek, 1998 ; Smith, Caputi & A ; Rawstorne, 2000 ; YA ±ldA ±rA ±m, 2000 ; Gaudron & A ; Vignoli 2002 ) . For illustration, Woodrow ( 1992 ) reported correlativities between computing machine experience and attitudes toward engineering. Chou ( 1997 ) besides highlighted that computing machine experience influenced teacher attitudes toward computing machines. Ropp ( 1999 ) found that there is important relationship between computing machine entree & A ; hours of computing machine usage per hebdomad and computing machine attitudes. Igbaria and Chakrabarti ( 1990 ) found that computing machine experience significantly affected attitudes towar d computing machines. Christensen ( 1997 ) observed that people with anterior positive experience tend to be more willing to follow a engineering than those who have had either a anterior negative experience or no experience at all. Cavas et Al. ( 2009 ) found that Turkish scientific discipline instructors have positive attitudes toward ICT and it differs sing computing machine experience. In this survey, the research worker focuses on learning experiences. Therefore, it is hypothesized: H5: There is important relationship between the male and female instructors and their attitudes towards web log usage in instruction. H6: There is important relationship between instructors ‘ instruction experiences and their attitudes towards web log usage in instruction. H7: There is no important relationship between instructors ‘ educational degree and their attitude towards web log usage in instruction.3.3 RESEARCH MODELBased on theories adopted from Davis et Al ( 1989 ) , Roger ( 1995 ) , Grasha ( 1994 ) , Chao ( 2-5 ) , figure 3.3 illustrates the research theoretical account of this survey.EXTERNAL FACTORTeaching Manner Expert Formal Authority Personal Model Facilitator Delegator BLOG COMPETENCE Teachers DEMOGRAPHICS Gender Old ages OF Teaching EDUCATION LEVELPERCEIVED USEFULNESSPERCEIVED EASE OF USEATTITUDE TOWARDS BLOG USECognitive Affectional Behavioral H4a, H4b, H4c, H4d, H4e H1 H3, H5, H6, H7 H2 Figure 3.3: Research Model3.4 POPULATION AND SAMPLEThe survey adopted systematic graded sampling. In Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur, there are 87 authorities secondary schools. The schools are divided into four zones Keramat, Sentul, Pudu and Bangsar ) . In this survey, the Keramat Zone was chosen. In Keramat Zone, there are 20 secondary schools and selected as the population for this survey. Out of 20 schools, 10 schools were selected as samples with 700 respondents. Table 3.2 shows schools involved in this survey and the figure of respondents involved. Table 3.2 SampleName of SchoolsEstimated Number of Teachers%Distributed%SMK ( P ) Air Panas 80 8.95 62 8.85 SMK Danau Kota 124 13.87 97 13.86 SMK Padang Tembak 110 12.30 86 12.29 SMK Puteri Titiwangsa 90 10.07 70 10.00 SMK Seksyen 5 Wangsa Maju 130 14.54 101 14.43 SMK Seri Titiwangsa 61 6.82 48 6.86 SMK Setapak Indah 76 8.50 60 8.57 SMK Wangsa Maju Seksyen 2 68 7.61 54 7.71 SMK Wangsa Melawati 80 8.95 63 9.00 SMK Zon R1 Wangsa Maju 75 8.39 59 8.43 Entire 894 100 700 1003.5 InstrumentThe primary instrument used in this survey is study questionnaire. In this research, close-ended inquiries were more preferred than open-ended inquiries. All the close-ended inquiries were designed and developed based on old research workers.3.6 MEASUREMENTThere are 72 point in the questionnaire. The questionnaire divided into five chief subdivisions. Section one consist of instructors ‘ demographic, followed by subdivision two with attitudes item that contains affectional, cognitive and behavioral properties. Section three about instructors ‘ web log competency and subdivision four points related to perceived usefulness and easiness of usage and the last subdivisions produce learning manners points. All points in this questionnaire were derived and adopted from anterior research workers to asseverate the dependability and cogency of the informations. A five-likert graduated table was applied in each point of the questionnaire except points in instructor ‘s demographic subdivision. Scale runing from 1 – Strongly Not Agree, 2 – Not Agree, 3 – Natural, 4 – Agree and 5 – Strongly Agree. The questionnaire prepared in multiple linguistic communication, English and Bahasa Melayu.3.6.1 Teacher ‘s DemographicTeacher ‘s demographics are related to respondent ‘s general features. Age and gender are indispensable when covering with the nature of the population being studied. In this research, point such as â€Å" name of school † , â€Å" topics Teach † , â€Å" instruction experiences † , â€Å" learning period/week † , â€Å" highest instruction degree † and â€Å" learning degree † we besides employed in the questionnaire.3.6.2 AttitudesIn this survey, point modified from Albarini ( 2006 ) . Three points developed from affectional sphere ( point 9 – 11 ) , five points from cognitive sphere ( point 12 – 16 ) and three points from behavioral sphere ( point 17 – 19 ) . Table 3.3 show the measurement point in item. A five point Likert graduated table was used to mensurate the responses ramping from 1=srongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. Table 3.3 Measurement of Teachers ‘ Attitude towards Blog Use in TeachingSouth dakotaCalciferolNitrogenASA9. Using web logs for learning does non frighten me at all. 1 2 3 4 5 10. I am glad there are more web logs these yearss used for instruction. 1 2 3 4 5 11. Using web logs for instruction is gratifying. 1 2 3 4 5 12. Using web logs for learning saves clip and attempt. 1 2 3 4 5 13. Students must utilize web logs in all capable affairs. 1 2 3 4 5 14. Web logs would actuate pupils to make more survey. 1 2 3 4 5 15. Web logs are a fast and efficient agencies of acquiring information. 1 2 3 4 5 16. Web logs can heighten pupils ‘ acquisition. 1 2 3 4 5 17. I would instead learn without web logs than utilizing web logs. 1 2 3 4 5 18. If I had the clip, I would larn to make web logs for learning intents. 1 2 3 4 5 19. I would wish to larn more about web logs for usage in instruction. 1 2 3 4 53.6.2 Perceived UsefulnessPerceived utility is defined as â€Å" the grade to which a individual believes that utilizing a peculiar system would heighten his or her occupation public presentation † by Davis ( 1989 ) . Perceives usefulness is one of two dominant concept of TAM to measure user ‘s credence. Item from Davis ( 1989 ) were adapted utilizing five-point Likert graduated table runing from 1=srongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. Table 3.4 Measurement of Perceived Usefulness towards Blog Use in TeachingSouth dakotaCalciferolNitrogenASA24. Using web logs for learning will better my learning public presentation. 1 2 3 4 5 25. Using web logs for learning enhances my effectivity on instruction. 1 2 3 4 5 26. Using web logs for learning improves the quality of instruction. 1 2 3 4 5 27. Overall, I find utilizing web logs utile in my instruction. 1 2 3 4 53.6.3 Perceived Ease of UseDavis ( 1989 ) defined sensed easiness of usage as â€Å" the grade to which a individual believes that utilizing a peculiar system would be free of attempt † . The steps of sensed easiness of usage were comprehensively used by many anterior surveies, for illustrations, Lederer et Al ( 1989 ) modified the steps of sensed easiness of usage that tantrum with the World Wide Web ( WWW ) use. In this survey, the points for sensed easiness of usage were adapted from Davis ( 1989 ) to suit within instructor ‘s attitude toward web log usage in learning. The six points used a five-point Likert graduated table runing from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree. Table 3.5 Measurement of Perceived Ease of Use towards Blog Use in TeachingSouth dakotaCalciferolNitrogenASA28. Using web logs is easy for me. 1 2 3 4 5 29. I find it easy to acquire web logs to make what I want to make. 1 2 3 4 5 30. Geting information from web log is easy. 1 2 3 4 5 31. My interaction with web logs is clear and apprehensible. 1 2 3 4 5 32. It would be easy for me to go adept at utilizing web logs. 1 2 3 4 5 33. Overall, I find blogs easy to utilize. 1 2 3 4 53.6.4 Teaching StyleThe Grasha-Riechman Teaching Styles Inventory ( GRTSI ) ia a study instrument used to find learning manner. The GRTSI uses a study instrument with 40 points, and uses a five-point Likert graduated table for each. Each type of learning manner contributes eight points each. All points were assorted up to avoid prejudice. Table 3.6 Item Distribution of Teaching Style towards Blog Use in TeachingTeaching MannerNo. of ItemsExpert 34, 39, 44, 49, 54, 59, 64, 69 Formal Authority 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70 Personal Model 36, 41, 46, 51, 56, 61, 66, 71 Facilitator 37, 42, 47, 52, 57, 62, 67, 72 Delegator 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63, 68, 73 Table 3.7 Measurement of Teaching Style towards Blog Use in Teaching Expert South dakota Calciferol Nitrogen A SA 34. Facts, constructs, and rules are the most of import things that pupils should get. 1 2 3 4 5 39. Sharing my cognition and expertness with pupils is really of import to me. 1 2 3 4 5 44. What I have to state about a subject is of import for pupils to get a broader position on the issues in that country. 1 2 3 4 5 49. I want pupils to go forth my category good prepared for farther work in this country. 1 2 3 4 5 54. Lecturing is a important portion of how I teach each of the category Sessionss. 1 2 3 4 5 59. My expertness is typically used to decide dissensions about content issues. 1 2 3 4 5 64. Students might depict me as a â€Å" depot of cognition † who dispenses the fact, rules, and constructs they need. 1 2 3 4 5 69. There is more stuff in my capable than I have clip available to cover it. 1 2 3 4 5 Formal Authority 35. I set high criterions for pupils in my category. 1 2 3 4 5 40. I give pupils negative feedback when their public presentation is unsatisfactory. 1 2 3 4 5 45. Students would depict my criterions and outlooks as slightly rigorous and stiff. 1 2 3 4 5 50. It is my duty to specify what pupils must larn and how they should larn it. 1 2 3 4 5 55. I provide really clear guidelines for how I want undertakings completed in my category. 1 2 3 4 5 60. My category has really specific ends and objectives that I want to carry through. 1 2 3 4 5 65. My outlooks for what I want pupils to make in this category are clearly defined in the course of study. 1 2 3 4 5 70. My criterions and outlooks help pupils develop the subject the demand to larn. 1 2 3 4 5 Table 3.7 ( Continued ) Measurement of Teaching Style towards Blog Use in Teaching Personal ModelSouth dakotaCalciferolNitrogenASA36. What I say and do theoretical accounts allow ways for pupils to believe about issues in the content. 1 2 3 4 5 41. Students are encouraged to emulate the illustration I provided. 1 2 3 4 5 46. I typically show pupils how and what to make in order to get the hang capable content. 1 2 3 4 5 51. Examples from my personal experiences frequently are used to exemplify points about the stuff. 1 2 3 4 5 56. I frequently show pupils how they can utilize assorted rules and constructs. 1 2 3 4 5 61. Students receive frequent verbal and/or written remarks on their public presentation. 1 2 3 4 5 66. Finally, many pupils begin to believe like me about capable content. 1 2 3 4 5 71. Students might depict me as a â€Å" manager † who works closely with person to rectify jobs in how they think and behave. 1 2 3 4 5 Facilitator 37. My instruction ends and methods address a assortment of pupil acquisition manners. 1 2 3 4 5 42. I spend clip consulting with pupils on how to better their work on single and/or group undertakings. 1 2 3 4 5 47. Small group treatments are employed to assist pupils develop their ability to believe critically. 1 2 3 4 5 52. I guide pupils ‘ work on category undertakings by inquiring inquiries, researching options, and proposing alternate ways to make things. 1 2 3 4 5 57. Class activities encourage pupils to take enterprise and duty for their acquisition. 1 2 3 4 5 62. I solicit student advice about how and what to learn in my category. 1 2 3 4 5 67. Students can do picks among activities in order to finish capable demands. 1 2 3 4 5 72. I give pupils a batch of personal support and encouragement to make good in my topic. 1 2 3 4 5 Delegator 38. Students typically work on category undertakings entirely with small supervising from me. 1 2 3 4 5 43. Activities in my category encourage pupils to develop their ain thoughts about content issues. 1 2 3 4 5 48. Students design one or more autonomous acquisition experiences. 1 2 3 4 5 53. Developing the ability of pupils to believe and work independently is an of import end. 1 2 3 4 5 58. Students take duty for learning portion of the category Sessionss. 1 2 3 4 5 63. Students set their ain gait for finishing independent and/or group undertakings. 1 2 3 4 5 68. My attack to instruction is similar to a director of a work group who delegates undertakings and duties to subsidiaries. 1 2 3 4 5 Table 3.7 ( Continued ) Measurement of Teaching Style towards Blog Use in Teaching DelegatorSouth dakotaCalciferolNitrogenASA73. I assume the function of a resource individual who is available to pupils whenever they need aid. 1 2 3 4 53.6.5 Blog CompetenceBlog Competence is to mensurate blog competency among instructors. This points was created by the research worker intentionally for this survey. Five Likert Scale besides applied. 1 – Not Competence, 2 – Less Competence, 3 – Moderate Competence, 4 – Competence and 5 – Very Competence. Table 3.8 Measurement of Blog Competence towards Blog Use in Teaching North carolina LC Megahertz C VC 20. Make a web log to portion my experiences and cognition. 1 2 3 4 5 21. Use a web log to happen information for instruction intents. 1 2 3 4 5 22. Post and answer to remarks in web logs for learning intents. 1 2 3 4 5 23. Update a web log with new information about instruction. 1 2 3 4 53.7 DATA COLLECTIONA missive of permission submitted to Jabatan Pelajaran Wilayah Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur ( JPWPKL ) to seek a blessing to carry oning a research at selected schools as listed before. After having an blessing missive, researcher conveying it when meet the principal for each schools. Researcher gives brief account about the research. Then, researcher seeks the cooperation of the principals to acquire a list of instructors toA guarantee the figure of instructors. Each questionnaire labelled with a consecutive figure. Every instructor who took the questionnaire will be recorded their consecutive Numberss. ThisA isA intended toA facilitateA the school to retrieveA allA the questionnaires for collection.A Besides, A itA besides makes it easierA for research worker to retrace the instructor if there is an uncomplete questionnaire. Principal appointA aA representativeA fromA the teachersA toA manage theA distributionA and aggregation ofA surveysA andA toA mediateA betweenA teachersA andA research workers. Within one hebdomad, research worker will come back to school to roll up the questionnaires.3.8 PILOT STUDYPilot survey refers to testings of the questionnaire on a little sample of respondents to place and extinguish possible jobs ( Hunt et al. , 1982 ; Parasuram, 1987 ; Malhorta, 2004 ) . 80 participants from SMK Wangsa Melawati participated in the pilot survey. Table 3.9 Pilot Study DistributionEntire DistributedEntire ReturnedFunctionalNot Functional80 74 74 03.9 RELIABILITY PILOT STUDY INSTRUMENT3.9.1 Dependent Variable – AttitudeThe dependability trial was performed utilizing SPSS ( let go of 18 ) for Windows to measure the instruments. Table 3.11 shows the consequence of dependability trial for dependent variables. Overall dependability trial shows that all point involved in this survey were dependable. On the other custodies, the trial shows that one of the behavioral points shows the mark merely 0.544. Researcher decides to take the point and the new mark is 0.855. Table 3.10 Reliability Test for Attitudes InstrumentsInstrumentBeforeAfterNo. of pointCronbach ‘s AlphaNo. of pointCronbach ‘s AlphaAttitude Affect 3 .728 3 .728 Behavioral 3 .544 2 .855 Cognitive 5 .707 5 .707 Overall Attitude 11 .717 10 .7173.9.1 Independent Variable – Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, Teaching Style and Blog CompetenceTable 3.8 shows the consequence of dependability trial for independent variables. Blog Competence, Perceived Usefulness and Perceived Ease of Use show high dependability for all points. There is a job with one of the point in Formal Authority that makes the mark really low ( 0.200 ) . Researcher decided to discontinue point no. 4 in Formal Authority and it make the mark alteration to 0.603. Overall mark is 0.903. Table 3.8 summarize the dependability trial for all independent variables. Table 3.12 make a comparing learning manners point from the old research workers. Table 3.11 Reliability Test for Blog Competence, Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use and Teaching Style InstrumentsInstrumentNo. of pointCronbach ‘s AlphaBlog Competence 4 .916 Perceived Usefulness 4 .918 Perceived Ease of Use 6 .816InstrumentBeforeAfterNo. of pointCronbach ‘s AlphaNo. of pointCronbach ‘s AlphaTeaching Manner Expert 8 .645 8 .645 Formal Authority 8 .200 7 .603 Personal Model 8 .713 8 .713 Facilitator 8 .617 8 .617 Delegator 8 .670 8 .670 Table 3.12 Comparison of Reliability Test for Teaching Style InstrumentsTeaching MannerDugas ( 2005 )Zamri et Al. ( 2009 )Pilot StudyNo. of pointCronbach ‘s AlphaNo. of pointCronbach ‘s AlphaNo. of pointCronbach ‘s AlphaExpert8 0.40 8 0.62 8 .645Formal Authority8 0.49 8 0.81 7 .603Personal Model8 0.58 8 0.80 8 .713Facilitator8 0.76 8 0.82 8 .617Delegator8 0.48 8 0.59 8 .670Overall40 0.71 40 Not Reported 39 .9033.10 DATA ANALYSISOnce informations were collected, it must be translated into an appropriate signifier for informations analysis. Harmonizing to De Vaus ( 2002 ) , there are four factors impacting how the informations are traveling to be analysed. They are the figure of variables being examined, the degree of measuring of the variables, descriptive or illative intents and ethical duty. This survey used SPSS ( let go of 18 ) for Windows to analyze the information. A measure by measure informations analysis was conducted to run into the research inquiry and aim of the survey. The process of proving the hypotheses of the survey has besides been taken in the information analysis subdivision. In this survey, there are dogged stairss in carry oning the information analysis ; this includes descriptive analysis, dependability analysis, factor analysis, correlativity analysis and arrested development analysis. Descriptive analysis was used to portray the informations accurately from the variables. It besides provides more information about the distribution of the variables. The frequences, per centum, mean and standard divergence were performed to construe the information. The descriptive analysis includes ‘age ‘ , ‘gender ‘ , ‘years of learning ‘ , ‘highest making ‘ , ‘level of learning ‘ , ‘number of learning period/week ‘ and ‘subject though ‘ . Harmonizing to Hair et Al ( 1998 ) , factor analysis is aimed at analyzing the construction of the correlativities among a big figure of variables by specifying a set of common implicit in dimensions ( factors ) . Furthermore, factor analysis is conducted to find whether the responses to a set of points used to mensurate a peculiar construct can be grouped together to organize an overall index of that construct ( Cramer, 2003 ) . In this survey, there are two set of variables for which factors are analysed. They are a set of independent variables and a set of dependent variables. After executing the factor analyses, the following measure would take to the dependability analysis of the measurings. The Cronbach ‘s alpha is the most widely used step of dependability of the variables ( Hair et al. , 1998 ; Morgan et al. , 2004 ) . Correlation analysis was performed to bespeak both the strength and the way of the relationship between a brace of variables ( Bryman and Cramer, 1994 ) . The variables are considered to be correlated if alterations in the 1 variable are associated with the alterations in the other variables ( Hair et al. , 1998 ) . The Pearson correlativity process is used to happen the relationship between independent variables ; gender, old ages of instruction, degree of instruction, web log competency, perceived easiness of usage, perceived usefulness and teaching manner and dependent variables ; attitudes toward web log utilizations. Finally, arrested development analysis is conducted in this survey to sum up the nature of the relationship between variables and for doing anticipations of likely values of dependent variables ( Bryman and Cramer, 1994 ) . Multiple arrested developments were used to foretell a graduated table of dependent variable from two or more independent variables.3.11 SummaryThe focal point of this chapter is on the development of research model. The survey will utilize a study research method design. The mark respondents for the study research participants would be secondary school instructor in Keramat Zone, Kuala Lumpur. Te extimated figure of trying units is 700. The following chapter presents the determination of the survey.

Independence air was a low cost air line

Independence air was a low cost air line that was owned by FLYi, Inc who had their headquarters in Virginia. Independence air operated from the year 1989 and it’s stopped its operations in 2006. Independence air mainly focused on the East Coast and the West coast.The route network of independence air was based in Washington Dulles international airport. Unfortunately the company ceased its operation on January 5th 2006 at 8:24 p.m.The company (independence air) had been in Chapter 11 bankruptcy from 7th 2005 there were some discussion that was taking place, which people thought would have saved Independence air but that did not happen.Explanation of Independence Air business planAtlantic Coast Airlines is the predecessor of Independence air line. The independence air line company started has Atlantic Coast Airlines in 15th December 1989. It (Atlantic Coast Airline) was operating a feeder services as United Express for Delta Connection and United Air lines.United with drew from contract after disagreement with Atlantic Coast. This forced Atlantic company to reinvent itself to a low cost independence air. The main objective of independence airline was to come with an air carrier with bargain base, off beat and a friendly service (Sharkey 2006)The 4 Ps for the independence airliner is: For their Promotion – independence airliner carried out intensive promotion even before it was launched. On 20th May 2004, before they inaugurated their first flight, they signed a three year deal with Washington Redskins; the company was to become the official sponsor of Washington Redskins.This was a marketing strategy for independence. In the summer of the year 2005 independence air line offered College students a Glide Summer travel pass.After paying two hundred and fifty US dollars Customers were to fly free (after paying airport fees and taxes) from May 1st to August 31st on Saturdays, Wednesdays and Tuesday. This was not geared towards getting any revenue, it wa s purely meant to have customers fill in the empty seats.The company also invested on a fleet of twenty promotional vehicles, which they dubbed â€Å"Jet trucks†. They modified pick ups trucks and painted them in airline’s livery and on the trucks bed they attached an aircraft tail.The company also had some humorous touches which it added to flying experience like the company replaced the flight attendant safety announcement   with a version of celebrities such   Mary Matalin and James Carville which had earlier on been pre recorded.On their Pricing, the company opted for a lower price as compared to their competitors, this was mainly meant to attract customers. They finally succeeded in attracting more customers, such that at their peak they were operating 600 flights on a daily basis.Their pricing strategy was one of the factors that some scholars argued that failed, because whenever the price of fuel roused, they didn’t adjust their prices. When it comes to Place, Independence air mainly focused on the East Coast and the West coast. The route network of independence air was based in Washington Dulles international airport.The company had many diverse Products in terms of the type of airplane that they were operating. Independence airline operated the following airplanes CRJ200, Bombardier, British aerospace jet stream 4100 turbo prop and several air buses.   (Williamson 2006 pp 19 -26).Independence air line had many strengths and weaknesses.   Some of its weakness was: the company was faced with a lot of competition from its competitors who were charging a higher price for their ticket as compared to Independence airline examples of some of their competitors were United air line. The second weakness is that the company failed to undertake a more intensive promotion; this made them to loose some of their customers to united airline.Lastly some critics also point out that the management of independent airline was also not effectiv e. Some of its strength were the   company had a lot of capital that they invested,   the company had a sales and marketing team that was creative lastly lowering the prices of their services was also a strength to them because it made them to attract more customers.While carrying out their Environmental and market assessment the company carried extensive studies on some of the companies that they thought will be their competitors.These gave them an idea on how the market is and how they were going to enter into the market. Independence air line believed that it could easily prosper on its own because of the strategy that they were going to use to enter the market. They were confident that by reducing the prices of their services they will be able to attract more customers (French 2004)

The case study is about a project to open a new Tesco Super Store

The is about a project to open a new Tesco Super Store - Case Study Example E. Stockwell (Simms, 26). The company expanded rapidly opening several stores from 1929 and eventually went public in 1947 when it was listed on the London Stock Exchange as Tesco Stores (Holdings) Limited. The company continued to grow through various acquisitions during the 1950s and 60s such as the acquisition of 70 Williamson's stores, 97 Charles Phillips stores, 212 Irwins stores, and 200 Harrow Stores outlets. At present, the company has continued to experience growth and success making a market leader within the grocery and general products retail market. The company’s stores are branded differently based on the location, size, and mode of acquisition. The main store brands are Tesco Extra, Tesco Metro, Tesco Express, Tesco Superstores, Tesco Homeplus, Dobbies, And One Stop. This paper aims to present the key elements involved in managing a successful project involving the opening of a new Tesco Superstore. It will discuss the key stages and associated tasks that will b e required in order to ensure overall success of the entire project, the project management processes and techniques that should be applied during the life of the project, and the important skills and competencies required by the project manager and team to achieve a successful project. Key stages and associated tasks required to ensure overall success of the project A project is usually described as a temporary group activity that is intended to produce a unique result, product, or service (Project Management Institute, 5). As such, a project is a plan of work that is aimed at bringing a beneficial change and is therefore expected to have a defined beginning and an end, and bears a scope of work that usually is unique and entails a lot of uncertainty (Prabhakar, 4). In addition, a project has several times, cost, and quality constraints and requires a multi-disciplinary team to carry out the project to its end. In order for a project to be successful, it must: Deliver the required benefits and outcomes expected by the organization, major stakeholders, delivery partners, and any other stakeholders involved in the project. Stay within the set out time targets and financial budgets; Engage the correct people and utilize the resources available within the organization and elsewhere appropriately (Cleland and Roland 176). Produce and realize deliverables that adhere to the agreed requirements; Have the necessary risk management skills and techniques required to manage adequately any risks that may arise and could jeopardize its success; Take into consideration of any changes that could occur in the manner in which the organization operates and all the diverse needs of the employees and other key stakeholders who shall be impacted by the various changes that may arise from the project. Five main stages of a project that must be undertaken in order to achieve success, namely: Initiating Under this stage, the management within an organization identifies a key busines s problem facing the organization or a unique opportunity that the organization could pursue and a possible business case that could provide a possible solution is identified. One needs to understand the environment within which the business operates in to be able to identify the scope of the project and the

Trading Units and The Government at the UK Essay

Trading Units and The Government at the UK - Essay Example The development of UK trade unions after 1970 is marked by the ascendance to power of Margaret Thatcher, in 1979, and the subsequent period of Conservative rule in Britain referred to as Thatcherism. 1979 can be considered the culminating point of trade union influence and power in the UK. According to sources, by that time, more than half of all British employees belonged to unions, with more than 4/5 included in different mechanisms of collective bargaining1. Margaret Thatcher and her three consecutive Conservative governments from 1979 to 1990 introduced a series of measures to liberalize and decentralize the economy, measures that relied on the role of the market in creating business rules. The market required competitiveness, both in terms of efficiency and cost issues, so the role of the trade unions was fought off and marginalized in the 80s. The accession to power of the Labour Party, with Tony Blair as Prime Minister, in 1997, had rekindled some of the trade unions hopefuls, given the history of tight relations between the Party and the trade unions. However, many of the reforms that Margaret Thatcher had adopted during the 80s remained and the results saw the trade union movement in one of the weakest positions in its history: trade union density has halved and collective bargaining mechanisms are at the lowest levels in trade union history2. In many cases, individual industrial relations have developed. Collective disputes can take several forms, differentiation following the severity of the dispute in question. They can take any form, from "silent or indirect protest (absenteeism, lack of motivation, rejects) to open strikes"3. Obviously, the most radical of these measures refer to the collective stoppage of work in an organization. Nevertheless, this is always a head-on game and will turn out on the side of whoever of the two parties involved will be able to hold its position. The management will look out to force union members back to work with punitive measures, such as salary deductions for each period of time that is not spent on the job. On the other hand, it is to be discussed how long the management can support an organization that is not properly functioning due to the strike. It is probably best that this type of recommendation from the UK union will come only after negotiations have not proven useful and after other forms of tacit disputes have been tried beforehand. Following the definition of International Labour Organization Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining Convention in 1949, collective bargaining is a "voluntary negotiation between employers or employers' organizations and workers' organizations, with a view to the regulation of terms and conditions of employment by collective agreements"4. In terms of scope, we can refer to several important advantages that the collective bargaining mechanism brings about. First of all, it aims to level a differing position of two parties (management vs. work organization) through "dialogue and consensus"5 rather than a conflicting situation.

ESL Cause and Effect Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

ESL Cause and Effect - Essay Example Those native in a country expect that immigrants should get integrated into the society. One of the ways this is expected to be achieved, is by having those individuals learning the language of the country and with respect to America, students are required to study English (Kessler& Quinn, 1982). Thus it was thought necessary that the way to assimilate different culture is through making English the uniform language of instruction. The assimilationist orientation was institutionalized by reducing public funding to private and church associated schools and banning bilingual programs in public schools. Bilingual textbooks were burnt with teachers were fired, taken to court, and convicted for clearing up concepts in childrens own native languages. Language minority students display low accomplishment in English only classrooms. When compared with the national norms, they are behind in every subject areas. In addition to losing their native languages, these students exhibit low achievement in English only classrooms. When compared with the national norms, they lag behind in all subject areas. A large number of them eventually drop out or are pushed out of school (Kessler& Quinn, 1982). Classrooms are full of students representing diverse cultural, ethnic, and national origins. They speak one of the many different immigrant languages back home, and have diverse religious, socioeconomic, and educational backgrounds. This means that different approaches would be required but this becomes quite difficult. School failure of language minority students is was attributed to childrens supposed inadequate intellectual, cognitive, and linguistic abilities. It was widely believed that knowing two languages resulted in mental confusion, subdued cognitive and academic development, and led to low achievement of language minority students. Another commonly held belief was that some ethnic groups were genetically

With reference to Britain OR the United States in the period Essay

With reference to Britain OR the United States in the period 1880s-1920s, critically examine the waysin which the child saving movement shaped the evolution of systems of care and control for the deliquent - Essay Example Accordingly, since the onset of Victorian era ideals surrounding the ability of society to handle juveniles who are behaving in a delinquent manner, much attention has been given to the issues surrounding youth crime, youth violence and overall juvenile delinquent behavior. Significantly, the child saving movement of the 19th century paved the way for a reevaluation of the conditions of child poverty and stimulated important changes with respect to the ways in which the state interacted with poor children. Seeking to address the issues associated with juvenile delinquency in the 19th century with respect to how juvenile delinquent behavior was understood with reference to the norms and expectations of the era, the following hopes to provide a thorough and concise analysis of perceptions of juvenile delinquency before, as well as after, the 19th century. This essay will ask, how did the child saving movement shape the evolution of systems of care and control for the delinquent? Follow ing this, we turn to an overview of antecedents to reform in the United States and the fundamental changes undertaken during this period. We then explore the changes and conclude with an overview of the issues discussed in this analysis of juvenile delinquency and the child-saving reform movement during the middle half of the 19th century (Lawrence, 2007; RouÄ ek, 1958). During the height of the 19th century, many children lived and worked in miserable social conditions. Accordingly, renowned theorists such as Karl Marx sought to address the horrific living conditions of the working poor and child labor was an important feature of this early industrial period of economic development. Child savers were at the forefront of change in the living and working conditions of young people as they pushed for important reforms in child labor laws, public education for all and important

I will explain it in the instructions box below Essay

I will explain it in the instructions box below - Essay Example Students were taken from those with high anxiety towards math’s and those with low anxiety towards maths.This was also repeated on those with high and low beliefs towards the subject. The researchers grouped the children according to their perceptions on mathematics after undertaking tests on heir anxiety and beliefs. Teachers were also given tests and rated based on their performance. The main intervention was the use of Math Anxiety Scale-Revised Beliefs Survey), Number and Operation Task and Geometric Shapes Sorting Task as a way of collecting the data before analysis could be done. This was after getting the consent from parents, and the administrators of the preschool children under study. Questionnaires were administered to teachers and children. The questionnaires were administered in silent rooms in order for the children not to have distractions that could make them deviate from the questions. However, most of the data collected from the tests was used to get a clearer picture on the answers that the children and teachers gave and the outcome of the tests. Anxiety on the part of the teachers towards mathematics had no effect on the performance of the children towards math. Teacher’s beliefs on math, on the other hand had significance effect on the children’s achievement in mathematics. The findings of the study can be found to be significant and reproducible since they are consistent with other studies that show that teacher’s anxiety does not affect children’s performance in the subject. Hence, the findings indicate that math is learnt faster in the classroom whether the teacher is a filled with anxiety or not as long the teacher is giving out the right content. This implies the beliefs of teachers are of upmost importance pertaining the association and performance of children in mathematics in their later years. Also anxiety towards mathematics is of less importance as compared to belief in the same, hence,

The Driver Responsibility Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Driver Responsibility Law - Essay Example According to the Driver Responsibility Law, the revenues collected are entered in the General Fund of the state. Since the year 2003, the collections made from the Driver Responsibility Law have exceeded $65 million. In the year 2008, the revenue generated from the Driver Responsibility Law summed up to $114.2 million out of which, about $8.5 million went to the fire protection grants whereas the remaining money was added to the general fund (â€Å"Lawmakers should stop†). The rate of collection is roughly 50 % as the fees when added to the regular fine become punitively high. According to an estimate, â€Å"[m]ore than half of the surcharge notices had resulted in license suspension for non-compliance (53% or 60,723). There were a total of 112,561 DWI offenders participating in the program. Of these offenders, only 11% were in compliance (12,493 drivers)† (Price 29). ... They are common respectable citizens, who somehow could not get the license renewed before driving their cars. Reasons for which their licenses are suspended include but are not limited to having unsatisfactory driving record in terms of too many points, and drunk driving. Many drivers are penalized for committing even minor offenses like forgetting to pay a ticket. For some reason, they are not able to make it to the court, and are thus suspended. Many among these people are unemployed, foreclosed, and poor, with no money to afford such expenses. A vast majority of them are found guilty of not paying the draconian Driver Responsibility Law imposed upon them by the state. Its charges supersede those of any other offense. Currently, lawmakers are advancing towards the eradication of fees that are overly punitive because such fees play a role in filling the budget holes while being ineffective in deterring dangerous driving behaviors. However, one of the most significant hurdles in thi s way is the replacement of the driver responsibility charges worth millions of dollars a year for a cash-strapped state. The Driver Responsibility Law is imposed when a driver fails to compensate or keep-up with a plan of payment. As a result of this, the Department of Treasury sends a notice to the Secretary of State, which in turn suspends the license. The concerned driver is not even notified of the same. To make it worse, the Driver Responsibility Law offers no protection against anything. Now when the very driver displays any kind of unacceptable traffic behavior including having an expired plate on the car, having a cracked windshield, or over-speeding, the police officer stops the driver and tells him that his driver’s license is

Building Engineering Services Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Building Engineering Services - Research Paper Example Depending upon the location, the nature of the building, residential or commercial, renewable energy sources of appropriate origin can be employed (EERE, 2005). One of the major reasons for power consumption in buildings is for heating and cooling the buildings (EST, 2006). This consumes almost 42% of the energy consumed by the entire building. If this could be brought under the energy optimization and under renewable energy portfolio, it could result in immense savings for the buildings. A solar-powered energy source is one of the renewable sources that are adopted. Solar energy is a constant and free for use source that is available during the day time and has to be stored to make use of during the night. This is accomplished using two methods of solar energy tapping. One, solar energy is trapped as heat and is used to heat the house or building and it is insulated in such a way that it continues to maintain the warmth in the house throughout the day and the night. Secondly, solar energy is also converted into electric energy using solar photovoltaic cells. This gets saved in the batteries are is directly employed to run the types of equip ment for heating and cooling like the HVAC systems in association with the regular power supply. Transpired solar collectors are used to collecting solar heat. These are normally dark, the perforated metal wall that would collect almost 80% of the solar heat that falls over it. This is then used to heat the air draught that would provide needed heat for the ventilation of the building. Two methodologies are adopted in using the heat collected in the solar collectors. The draught of air gets heated up during the course of the day and continues to heat the entire building as it continues through the night. The other method heats the water to a high degree from which the heat is distributed through the regular heating lines in the building. Both the methods are used at different locations depending on the convenience. Solar Photo Voltaic Cells Solar panels are extensively used in environmentally friendly buildings to collect the heat of the sun and convert it directly into electricity to enable employing it effectively in all the spheres of work. This has been done extensively in many locations, as roof fitted photo panel; also as separate panels that would help in augmenting the electricity consumption exercises. Ground Source heat pumps These are normally pipes or bores dug into the ground to depths of about 200 to 300 feet is sunk and the additional heat is pumped into the ground during summer and taken off later during the winter when heating is needed. These ground source heat pumps are effectively employed in some of the locations in the US and in the rest of the world. It has been repeatedly found that the ground source heat pumps are efficient in pumping in and out the energy, contain it for a period of time and can be used as a large storage space for energy (EST, 2006). These are specifically suited in locations where there is a cooling requirement in the summer and a heating requirement in the winter.

Human Resourses Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Human Resourses - Case Study Example This paper analyses the human resources department of a Canadian multinational company called Alcan, in order to evaluate its HR functions. Presently, the concept of human resources have taken an important place in the policies of not just organizations, but of governments as well. There are many functions related to human resources. It starts from having a strategy for recruitment, because finding the right employee to fill a certain job vacancy is an advantage. The hiring process comes next with applications being scrutinized and different levels of interviews being conducted. Then comes the actual selection process by which the best possible candidates become employees or trainees in the company. The next process is to train the new recruits. Training includes activities directly related to the nature of a person's job. Then comes training in areas that are common to all employees. They include code of conduct, avenues of career advancement, safety procedures, bonus and other compensation plans etc. Performance appraisal is also a part of the HR department's functions. Devising plans for promotions and redundancy and their implementation come next. Another important function is employer employee relations. Maintaining a good relationship with company trade unions is of crucial importance. Proper recording of all relevant data of the employee including personal data, attendance, performance appraisal, eligibility for bonus and promotions is also a responsibility of this department. Another area is maintaining confidential and self appraisal reports of the employees. One of the most important functions of HR department is handling the career development possibilities of its more productive employees. Alcan: Alcan was incorporated in 1902 as Northern Aluminum Company. At that time it was the largest aluminum company in Canada and the world's third largest, next to its parent company Alcoa. It was renamed as Aluminum Company of Canada in 1925, and separated from the parent company Alcoa in 1928. In 2001, the company was renamed as Alcan Inc. Alcan and Rio Tinto Aluminum joined forces in the year 2007 to create Rio Tinto Alcan, in order to create new leader in the aluminum business. Alcan Inc is a leading global material company delivering high quality products and services worldwide. Alcan provides world class technology and operation in bauxite mining, alumina processing, primary metal smelting, power generation, aluminum fabrication, engineered solutions, packaging materials, delivery increasing productivity, competitiveness and profitability to customers around the world. The organization's aim is to serve the interest and needs of global and regional customers in all aspects of the al uminum, fabrication and packaging markets in order to deliver best value to the company's shareholders. Alcan's head offices are at Montreal, Canada and Paris, France. It mainly focuses on corporate strategy and growth initiatives, human resources and strategic capital allocation, corporate governance and compliance function. Another important focus is developing a strong leader and empowering employees. Alcan's strength is based on synergy of skilled people, market driven solution, advanced technology and its value creation.

Organizational Needs Essay Example for Free

Organizational Needs Essay The success of any business or any organization basically depends on proper planning and proper utilization of its resources. It is true that success dose not comes overnight, a need for assessing; exploring is required to be done. After planning, there comes the step of communication. The quality of communication determines the extent of the success of a business. In order to make communication effective career development programs are introduced to the employee by the organization. The basic aim of this kind of career development program is to make an individual employee give in his best to the company thus, maximizing profits. Although these programs were not really liked by some of the organizations. And were regarded as cost oriented, but with times as the result was good, people recognized its importance. â€Å"A needs assessment is a systematic exploration of the way things are and the way they should be†. As Gutteridge says that career development is not only the development of an individual but also the development of the management as a whole. It is equally essential, to know what learning will be accomplished, what changes in an individual’s performance are expected, what are the expected economic costs what will be the result, and after how much time will the target be achieved. Main Aim of Organizations As we know that the main aim of any origination or any business done is to get maximum profits. It is the same way in order to achieve the target. A lot of hard work has to be done, like conduction of career development programs. Knowdell (1982 – 1984) traced the origin of career developmental programs. This would of course enhance their abilities of the employees as we know that â€Å"a career development system with in a business is an organized formalized, planned effort to achieve a balance between the individuals. † With the help of these career program employees and managers know about their potentials and weaknesses, they come to know how to manage their own careers and this way feel more confident and responsible about themselves. A career developmental program should be based on: Check Actual Performance The very first step should be to check and analyze the present abilities of the employees and of course the current satiation of the organization in which it is running. After the analyses of the current situation have been made we could them go on to focus on our desired goal. By the help of the information gained on the abilities and on the capabilities of the employees we could by the help of counselors could guide an individual employee, on what particular part. He basically has got to focus. This practice may take time but with time slowly and gradually every individual employee would to his organization. It is very crucial that one must distinguish the actual needs from the perceived needs. It is true that with proper training, guidance and of course not to forget full cooperation of the employee, the target of maximums profits would be achieved. An individual should work harder on his weak points and should strive to develop his stronger ones. Set Priorities After analyzing an individual or the employee’s strengths and weaknesses we could know what kind of training is needed by an individual. What time, money should be allocated on him. One thing which should be kept in mind is the organizational needs goals and realities. The employee who is under training should set priorities that is, on which area he should work first, as per the need of his organization. If all these matter would be taken into consideration then without any doubt he would develop himself his abilities, his sense of responsibility, knowledge, skill and would accomplish his goals. Identify Problem Areas In this step we would identify those areas in which working have got to be done. After the problem is identified specific solution has to be applied. This will of course require detailed investigation and analysis. Identify Appropriate Solutions In this last step after solution have been applied to the specific problems, still as it is there is more room for improvement. It is important to move people into new direct to explore more and to improve. There are specific research centers like â€Å"the society’s career development program provides awards intended to meet the specific needs of investigators at different states in their research careers†. Thus, a lot of encouragement is given to all those people under training, so as to encourage them get good results. Essential Components The oxford English dictionary says One’s careers are one’s course or progress through life. This basically means that as an individual keeps on progressing and making himself better, through gaining more knowledge and information he keeps on improving with time and practice to improve there are self development tools. Self Assessment Know body know you as well as you know yourself. So as it is that the person under training should assess himself that what kind of training he should take or what kind of training would help to make his career develop and prosper. He should take care of his weak points and should develop his strengths. It is very curtail that counseling should be done by an expert advisor to the trainee. This way the trainee would be sure as to which way he has to go. There are also internal labor marketing and many more components. Pro and Cons There are advantages as well as certain disadvantages of getting into career programming. The good points are that after a certain period of time with a lot of hard work and labor the organization would gain good profits. There are certain disadvantages as well like it is very. Time consuming; it involves a lot of time, labor and money which would otherwise be spent elsewhere in the company. Conclusion There is a well enough connection between the organizational development and career development. As we know that a lot of individuals make is going to go under training gains knowledge develop his skill and abilities. Eventually he would perform well in that organization and because of him the company would make a lot of profits there he would certainly be rewarded. Thus his way he would also develop his career and this would certainly be a good start in his life. Reference http://www.leukemia-lymphoma.org/all_page?item_id=11618

Fulfilment of Obligations for a Contract

Fulfilment of Obligations for a Contract Jack’s purchase of â€Å"the machine† from Jim of Agricultural Supplies Ltd is one for a specific purpose. The contract with ASDA will no doubt reap substantial reward. The machine is a fundamental part of that agreement, as Jack cannot fulfill his obligations without it. The importance of the machine being able to produce vegetables that comply with the terms of the contract with ASDA was brought to the attention of Jim at the time the contract was entered into. The question of whether Jack can recover anything beyond the price of the machine after it fails to deliver will initially depend upon the interpretation of the exclusion clause. The contract specifically excludes liability for any consequential loss whatsoever. This would include the loss of profit to be suffered by Jack as a result of ASDA summarily terminating their agreement. Such terms are however subject to the Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977, and more specifically s. 3[1], and the test of reasonableness contained within s. 11. There is a standard requirement that the term is â€Å"fair and reasonable[2]† but what amounts to this will be a question of fact in each case. Not only will it look at the extent of what the clause is attempting to exclude, but also the bargaining position of the parties. As both are essentially acting â€Å"in the course of a business† there is a suggestion that there is an equal footing and the greater the equality, the more likely that an exclusion clause will be considered reasonable[3]. What is fair to infer from the facts of this case, is that Jack is not an experienced businessman with an understanding as to the operation of a clause that would exclude liability. He may well have noticed its presence, but requires firm clarification as to what he can actually recover in the event of a breach. It is Jim’s response that leads to the exclusion clause probably becoming unenforceable. The clause is attempting to limit the liability of Agricultural Supplies Ltd but Jim, a company Director contradicts this position and assures Jack that any consequential losses will be covered in the event of a breach. S 11(1) UCTA 1977 states that the term may be considered reasonable having regard to the circumstances known to, or in the contemplation of the parties when the contract was made. It would be harsh in this case to deny Jack the ability to rely upon Jim’s assurances. Certainly there is a strong argument that Jim’s statement will become a term of the con tract, overriding the earlier exclusion clause. It was the parties’ true intention and to allow the exclusion clause to stand would not only be unreasonable, but an inaccurate reflection of that intention[4]. Assuming therefore that the exclusion clause itself does not prevent a claim in principle for losses beyond the defective machine, we can consider the issue of lost profit arising from the agreement with ASDA. It has traditionally been the accepted practice of assessment of damages in the area of contract, that lost profit following a breach are subject to tests of causation and mitigation. While the general rule in contract law is to put the claimant in the same position as if those terms had been fulfilled[5], it is still necessary for the Court to assess such damages in monetary terms. In Jack’s situation he has an expectation interest which is defined as â€Å"the benefit [the claimant] expected to receive from the completion of the promised performance of the other party’s obligation, but which were in the event prevented by the breach of contract committed by [the defendant][6]†. The difficulty here is that while there is a definable loss i.e. the profit from the contract with ASDA, there is no knowing how long that contract would continue for or how much Jack would receive per annum. Where significant loss has been sustained, the Courts will look to the availabl e evidence to assess quantum[7]. But whether this alone would suffice is debatable. The difficulty is causation; to what extent was this breach of contract the effective or dominant cause of the loss[8]? The case of Headley v. Baxendale (1854)[9] laid down the rule regarding recovery of losses that were allegedly too remote. In modern terms it is stated to be: â€Å"A type or kind of loss is not too remote a consequence of a breach of contract is, at the time of contracting (and on the assumption that the parties actually foresaw the breach in question) it was within their reasonable contemplation as a not unlikely result of that breach[10]†. It would certainly appear therefore that such contemplation was well within the mind of both Jack and Jim at the time of entering into the contract. Indeed, Jack showed Jim a copy of the agreement with ASDA and his statement that Agricultural Supplies Ltd would â€Å"see to it that Jack is compensated for any loss he incurs† certainly seems to suggest an acceptance of the types of loss i.e. future profit, which Jack would now seek to recover. The recent judgment of the House of Lords in Transfield Shipping Inc v. Mercator Shipping Inc (The Achilleas) (2008)[11] has however thrown such assumptions wide open. This case concerned the hire of a ship for a certain period. The defendant failed to return the ship on time and as a result, the claimant lost a contract with a third party. While the defendant accepted that â€Å"in the trade† compensation would have to be paid, the disputed that they were liable for the loss of profit under the second contract. The arbitrators at first instance and the Court of Appeal[12] found for the claimant. The House of Lords however reversed that decision finding for the defendant. The issue of â€Å"assumption of responsibility† was at the forefront of the Lords’ considerations in this matter. While the defendant’s accepted that some losses would be sustained for which they may be liable, the Court felt that the particular kind of loss was not reasonably contemplated. As Lord Hope of Craighead stated[13]; â€Å"a party cannot be expected to assume responsibility for something that he cannot control and, because he does not know anything about it, cannot quantify. It is not enough for him to know in general and on open-ended terms that there is likely to be a follow-on [contract]† What has been established by the case is a second limb to the test in Headley v. Baxendale. A claimant will not necessarily recover losses that were not unlikely to occur in the usual course of things, if the defendant cannot reasonably be regarded as having assumed responsibility for losses of the particular kind suffered[14]. No longer can it be said that such losses were likely, probable or foreseeable alone, the particular type of loss must have been contemplated by the defendant and he nevertheless accepted the risk in the event of a breach. While this issue of a certain type of loss is not a new phenomenon[15], the combination with the test in Headley v. Baxendale has redressed the scope of recovery in contract cases and particularly the issue of remoteness of damage. Baroness Hale[16] has referred to this extension as â€Å"adding a novel dimension to the way in which the question of remoteness of damage in contract is to be answered†. What this case has done is establi sh a negligence type assessment for causation in contract. While the issue of remoteness, and whether the kind of loss was â€Å"not unlikely† to occur remains a question of fact, the issue of whether it was reasonable to assume the defendant accepted responsibility for that particular type of risk is a question in law[17]. Whether this will assist Jack is not clear. It has been suggested that the effect of The Achilleas upon Sale of Goods Act 1979 claims (as is Jack’s) may have relevance. S. 52(2) of the SGA 1979 states that; â€Å"The measure of damages is the estimated loss directly and naturally resulting, in the ordinary course of events, from the seller’s breach of contract†. If such loss of profit from the agreement with ASDA is to be â€Å"not unlikely† to occur, then Jack may have to establish that Jim assumed responsibility for that particular type of loss. In Chitty on Contracts[18] it is submitted that the House of Lords see their decision as a separate rule when applicable to sale of goods contracts. It should be noted that the facts of The Achilleas related to shipping contracts and the House noted that lack of case law considering this specific issue. While not limited to this area of law, the decision as opposed to other areas i.e. sale of goods, needs to be watched with trepidation. Ultimately there are reasonable prospects for Jack to secure damages beyond the cost of the machine. It can certainly be argued that Jim accepted the risk of the particular type when he was referred to the contract with ASDA. The loss of profit resulting from the termination of that agreement is not the only possible pecuniary disadvantage Jack could suffer i.e. damages claimed by ASDA, returned goods through poor quality etc. This coupled with the uncertainty as to the duration and net value of the contract makes quantum an almost impossible task. It should be noted that such losses have been recovered in Victoria Laundry (Windsor) v. Newman Industries (1949)[19], and more specifically for lost profit arising out of defective equipment under a contract of sale in H Parsons (Livestock) Ltd v. Uttley Ingham Co Ltd (1978)[20]. However the particular circumstances of Jack’s contract are quite unique, and the possible extension of the remoteness rule will not appear to be a help. BIBLIOGRAPHY Chitty on Contracts; Thirteenth Edition 2008, Sweet Maxwell Publishing Peel, E.; â€Å"Remoteness Revisited†, L.Q.R. 2009, 125(Jan), 6-12 Poole, J.; â€Å"Casebook on Contract Law†, Ninth Edition 2008, Oxford University Press McKendrick, E.; â€Å"Contract Law: Text Cases and Materials† Third Edition 2008, Oxford University Press Tamblyn, N; â€Å"Damages Under String Contracts for Sale of Goods†, J.B.L. 2009, 1, 1-14 Rose, F.; â€Å"Blackstone’s Statutes on Contract, Tort Restitution 2008-2009†, Nineteenth Edition 2008, Blackstone Press www.westlaw.co.uk – as accessed on 22nd December 2008 1 Footnotes [1] UCTA 1977 s. 3(1) â€Å"This section applies as between contracting parties where one of them deals†¦on the other’s written standard terms of business†; Chester Grosvenor Hotel Co Ltd v. Alfred McApline Management Ltd [1991] 56 Build LR 115 [2] UCTA 1977 s. 11(1) [3] Watford Electronics Ltd v. Sanderson CFL Ltd [2001] All ER (D) 290 CA [4] This section can be expanded upon to include additional cases on exclusion clauses in any text book. There is also an argument for rectification by mistake i.e. Joscelyne v. Nissen [1970] 2 QB 86 (CA) [5] Golden Strait Corp v. Nippon Yusen Kubishika Kaisha [2007] UKHL 12 [6] Chitty on Contracts: Thirteenth Edition, Volume I, at para 26-002 [7] Tai Hing Cotton Mill Ltd v. Kamsing Knitting Factory [1979] A.C. 91, 106. [8] Ibid fn 6 at para 26-032 [9] [1854] 9 Ex. 341 [10] Ibid fn 6 at para 26-054; see also Koufos v. C. Czarnikow Ltd (The Heron II) [1969] 1 A.C. 350 [11] [2008] UKHL 48 [12] [2007] Lloyd’s Rep 555 [13] Ibid fn 11 at para 36 [14] Ibid fn 6 at para 26-100A [15] Victoria Laundry (Windsor) v. Newman Industries [1949] 2 K.B. 528 [16] Ibid fn 11 at para 93 [17] Ibid at para 22 per Lord Hoffman [18] Ibid fn 6 at para 26-100G [19] Ibid fn 15 [20] [1978] Q.B. 791

Polycystic Kidney Disease Causes and Treatment

Polycystic Kidney Disease Causes and Treatment   Introduction: Polycystic kidney disease effects roughly 10 million people worldwide. Even though this disease is so prominent it lacks research in the field of therapeutics from biopharmaceutical companies as they invest their resources into fields which are seen to be more profitable i.e. cancer research. This lack of research is what enticed us to carry out our project on polycystic kidney disease. This project will firstly outline the history of the polycystic kidney disease, how it effects patients, the cause of the disease and the current therapeutic treatment available to combat polycystic kidney disease in section 1. Section 2 will look at the current diagnostic methods employed by a physician to see if a patient is suffering from polycystic kidney disease. Diagnostic methods such as imaging and genetic testing will be dealt with here. Lastly section 3 will look at a potential new diagnostic technique which has been formed using proteomic techniques to identify the difference between a healthy polycystin-1 protein compared to a mutated polycystin-1 protein. The first record of Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) is from the 16th century. In 1586, the King of Poland died from cysts on his kidneys. The cysts were described by his surgeon as large like those of a bull, with an uneven and bumpy surface. At the time of his death he was diagnosed with meningeal abscesses. It wasnt until a group of physicians re-examined the records of the Kings death over 300 hundred years later that his cause of death was agreed to be PKD. The term polycystic kidney disease was first used by Fà ©lix Lejars in 1888, although the mode of inheritance of this disease wasnt understood for almost another one hundred years. In the 1990s, the formation of cysts was understood at a molecular level. This helped in the discovery of the genes that cause PKD (Ayse, 2016). Figure.1 A visual representation of the transmembrane proteins Polycystin-1 and Polycystin-2. Also seen is the Polycystin-1 receptor located in extracellularly. (Gallagher, Germino and Somlo, 2010) PKD is a genetic disease in which the renal tissue within the outer cortex and inner medulla is replaced with fluid filled sacs (or cysts). These cysts enlarge the kidneys and inhibit kidney function. Hypertension, hematuria and chronic pain are the most common symptoms associated with PKD (Seeger-Nukpezah et al., 2015). PKD has two forms; Autosomal Dominant (ADPKD) and Autosomal Recessive (ARPKD). ADPKD is the result of the inheritance of one mutant PKD1 or PKD2 gene, which affects ~1:750 people worldwide. 85% of ADPKD cases are caused by mutations in PKD1. Mutations in this gene lead to earlier disease onset. The other 15% of cases are attributed to a mutation in PKD2. All ADPKD patients inherit one normal allele and one mutant allele. Cases where both alleles have the dominant mutation lead to embryonic lethality. ARPKD is caused by the inheritance of two recessive mutated PKHD1 genes. ARPKD is considerably less common with an incidence of 1:20,000. ARPKD progresses at a much faster rate than ADPKD. It usually causes death at birth or requires transplantation in early childhood. Multiple different types of mutations in PKD1, PKD2, and PKHD1 have been researched, including frameshifts, deletions, and premature stop codon insertions (Wilson, 2015). In the dominant form of PKD there is only one mutated gene inherited. This mutated gene is unable to produce the proteins PC-1 or PC-2. However, the non-mutated allele can still function as normal and can produce enough of the polycystin proteins to maintain kidney function. It is only when a somatic mutation occurs causing the normal allele to become inactivated that symptoms of the disease will occur. (Torres and Harris, 2010) PKD-1 is located on the short arm of chromosome 16 (16p13.3). PKD-2 gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 4 (4q21) (Nowak et al., 2016). Polycystin-1 and 2 are large transmembrane proteins which are encoded by PKD1 and 2. Both proteins affect multiple downstream signalling proteins (Seeger-Nukpezah et al., 2015). In a normally functioning nephron as the urinary filtrate flows by and causes the primary cilia to bend polycystin 1 and 2 respond by allowing calcium influx which activate pathways in the cell which inhibit cell proliferation. PC1 has the ability to sense when the primary cilia bends which activates PC2 calcium channels. If either PC1 or PC2 is absent the signal to inhibit cell growth is not received (Chebib et al., 2015). PKD1 or PKD2 mutations cause a reduction in intracellular calcium. This triggers a change in the response of the cell to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) from suppression to proliferation. The concentration of cAMP directly affects the activity of Protein Kinase A. Four cAMP molecules are required to activate one PKA enzyme. The increased production of cAMP via adenylyl cyclase 6 is dependent on vasopressin (Chebib et al., 2015). Despite the many breakthroughs in research allowing for a greater understanding of the disease, there is currently no cure for PKD. However, there are drugs which can suppress symptoms brought on by the disease. Beta blockers such as, Tenormin, can be used to treat hypertension and haematuria can be treated with antibiotics. Understanding the effect of PC1 and PC2 mutations on the vasopressin receptor in the cell lead to the development of Tolvaptan. This drug slows down the formation of cysts in the kidneys. Tolvaptan blocks the vasopressin receptor, which will stop the signalling pathway. Therefore, cAMP production will be reduced. (Ema.europa.eu, 2017) The current diagnostic methods for polycystic kidney disease include genetic testing, pre-natal testing and imaging studies in the form of ultrasounds, CT (Computed Tomography) scans and MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scans The imaging studies take a scan of the kidneys to identify the presence of any abnormalities in the form of renal cysts. An ultrasound mechanism uses high frequency sound waves to capture and visualise images that cant be seen with the naked eye. The CT scan combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross sectional views and/or three-dimensional images of the kidneys and the MRI scan uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to from pictures of the kidneys. The appearance of three or more renal cysts, either unilateral or bilateral, on the image is enough to diagnose a patient between the ages of 15 and 39 with polycystic kidney disease. In patients aged 40 59, the presence of two or more cysts in each kidney fulfils the criteria to diagnose the patient with polycystic kidney disease. The presence of four or more cysts in each kidney is used to diagnose older patients (F. Belibi et al., 2008). The kidneys on an image may appear enlarged but retain their normal reniform shape in the case of a patient presenting with possible polycystic kidney disease. The medullary pyramids in the centre of the kidney may be more visible on an image in contrast to the cortex which can give a peripheral halo on the image obtained. High resolution imaging studies allows the visualisation of numerous cylindrical cysts within the medulla and the cortex which represent ectatic collecting ducts within the kidney (F. Gaillard, 2015). Genetic testing for polycystic kidney disease is for those who have a family history of polycystic kidney disease who has no symptoms and may consider being screened for the disease. Genetic tests can be done to screen for both PKD1 or PKD2 mutations. A method of PCR known as PCR- SSCP (Polymerase Chain Reaction Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism) is used to view mutations, if any, in the patients genomic DNA. In SSCP analysis, a mutated DNA sequence is detected as a change of mobility in polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis caused by the altered folded structure of single-stranded DNA (K. Hayashi, 1991). The genomic DNA of the white blood cells in patients with the possible polycystic kidney disease gene are isolated. These samples of genomic DNA are then amplified by PCR using two primers to amplify the potential polycystic kidney disease genes (R. Jas et al., 2012) The PCR product is then analysed using the SSCP method. This method involves loading the PCR product samples onto the acryl amide gel and gel electrophoresis occurs. After completion of the gel electrophoresis step, the gel is subjected to silver staining to visualise the SSCP band patterns (B. Yadav et al., 2009). The silver stained gel is kept on a transilluminator and the SSCP variants are recorded. DNA samples from the abnormal bands seen on the transilluminator are sequenced to see what kind of mutation and where the location of the mutation is on the polycystic kidney disease gene (Z. Dian-Yong et al., 2002). In PCR-SSCP analysis, changes in several hundred base pairs are detected in contrast with other techniques in which changes in relatively short sequences can be detected. Because of this, PCR-SSCP analysis is much more sensitive to the replication errors that can occur during the PCR process (K. Hayashi, 1991). Diagnosis of polycystic kidney disease can also be done prenatally. If the parents agree, a prenatal diagnosis can be done on the developing fetus if there is a history of polycystic kidney disease in either the parents or extended family . A DNA sample is taken from both parents and a sample of tissue is taken from the fetus. The tissue sample is obtained from the fetus by a procedure called aminocentesis which involves passing a needle into the mothers lower abdomen and into the amniotic cavity inside the uterus. The sample is then amplified by PCR to detect any mutations in the DNA that could lead to the fetus developing polycystic kidney disease in the future (K. MacDermot et al., 1998). The imaging studies, genetic testing and prenatal testing for polycystic kidney disease have advantages and disadvantages. One advantage of the imaging studies is that they are reliable, inexpensive and a non-invasive way to diagnose polycystic kidney disease (A.Khan, 2015). A disadvantage of imaging studies is that while they are sensitive in the detection of polycystic kidney disease, problems may arise with smaller cysts. Smaller cysts on scans may not be easily differentiated from small, solid masses within the kidneys (A.Khan, 2015). An advantage of CT scans when compared to MRI scans is that the cysts on the kidney will enhance on the image when dye is administered into the patient intravenously (A. Khan, 2015) (F. Gaillard, 2015). MRI scans of the kidneys are becoming a useful technique in diagnosing more complicated cysts and can be used in addition to or instead of CT scans (A. Khan, 2015). The advantage of genetic testing as a method of diagnosing polycystic kidney disease is that it can determine if a person who has a relative with polycystic kidney disease will in the future start showing symptoms of the disease. Some disadvantages of genetic testing as a method of diagnosing polycystic kidney disease is that they are extremely costly tests to carry out and sometimes they cant pick up on certain gene mutations that could eventually lead to the person having polycystic kidney disease (National Kidney Foundation, 2016). The major advantage of prenatal testing for polycystic kidney disease is the fact that treatment using cyst suppressing drugs can be used early in the diseased patients life meaning the formation of renal damaging cysts will be slowed down drastically compared to a patient who was not on the cyst supressing treatment early in their life time. The negative of prenatal testing is of course the invasive nature of extracting tissue from the foetus which many parents would not agree with however the benefits of early diagnosis of this disease will lead to a better quality of life for the child in their later years. As discussed in the previous section the current diagnostic methods for diagnosing polycystic kidney disease is through the use of various scans and genetic testing. The genetic testing is carried out by analysing the DNA sequence in order to identify any mutations which may be present. As a new method of diagnosing this disease a study of the protein polycystin-1 which when mutated is responsible for polycystic kidney disease, will be analysed by using proteomic methods. Firstly, the polycystin-1 protein must be extracted from a patient who wishes to obtain diagnosis of the disease. Since polycystin-1 is a membrane protein and is located in the kidney it will be necessary to extract kidney tissue from the patient by carrying out a quick and simple biopsy procedure. The biopsy removes kidney tissue by inserting a thin biopsy needle through the skin and into the kidney whilst the patient is under local anaesthetic. Now that tissue containing the polycystin-1 or its mutated form is extracted from the patient it must be treated in order to release the proteins contained within the tissue. The tissue will firstly be homogenized and lysed in order to release the proteins into solution. The sample will then be centrifuged at 14,000 rpm at 4ÃÅ'Ã…  C for 15 min. This centrifugation step removes any insoluble material and the supernatant will contain the proteins from the tissue sample including the protein of interest polycystin-1. This method was carried out by Malhas, Abuknesha, and Price 2001 whilst trying to crystalize the polycystin-1 protein. Now that polycystin-1 is in solution it can be separated from the other proteins by means of 2D gel electrophoresis. This technique will separate the polycystin-1 protein from other proteins based firstly on their isoelectric points (pIs) and secondly by their molecular weight. After carrying out this two-dimensional separation the gel is stained with stains such as coomassie brilliant blue (CBB) or silver staining in order to visualize the spots on the gel. By carrying out bioinformatical analysis the molecular weight and pI of polycystin-1 can easily be obtained (Mishra 2010). The molecular weight of polycystin-1 is 460.3 kDa and it has a pI of 6.27. With this information, the band which corresponds to the molecular weight and pI of polycystin-1 can be easily identified and excised from the gel. Before excising the polycystin-1 protein from the gel it must first be fragmented into peptides using trypsin cleavage. By fragmenting the protein with trypsin, peptide molecules are formed which are now suitable to be sequenced using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. These peptides must then be suspended in a matrix suitable for MALDI-TOF MS. An example of such a matrix is ÃŽÂ ±-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid which was used in the work carried out by Malhas, Abuknesha, and Price, when they crystallized the polycystin-1 protein using the MALDI-TOF technique. This matrix is suitable as the peptides are below 5 kDa. The matrix and peptide mixture is then loaded onto the metal plate of the MALDI-TOF MS analyser where it will be hit by a pulsing UV laser. The matrix molecules absorb the UV light causing the matrix molecules to enter the gas phase along with their coupled vaporised peptides which then become ionized. The TOF MS then measures the time it takes the ions to fly as lighter ions travel faster. The ions will then hit the ion detector and the on board computer will produce the plot of the mass spectrum (Kraj and Silberring 2008). MALDI-TOF MS is the ideal method to analyse the polycystin-1 protein as like ESI, it is a soft ionization technique meaning there will be little or no fragmentation of the compounds being analysed. Once the mass spectrum is obtained it is then compared to the mass spectrum of the normally functioning polycystin-1 protein which can theoretically be fragmented by trypsin in the online databases. Any differences between the sample and the known mass spectrum of the normal protein will signal a mutation has occurred. This method of protein analysis is a very effective and efficient way of screening for the mutated proteins. The study carried out by Brioude et al 2016 proves this as they looked at using MALDI-TOF MS to test for mutated proteins leading to lung tumours. In this study, they concluded that the method is very promising and it should be used in several surgical settings where rapid evaluation of abnormal tissue is required. This highlights how this new method of analysing polycystin-1 for a mutation could prove very effective in diagnosing polycystic kidney disease. This method holds a distinct advantage over the imaging methods currently in use as diagnosis can be made early in a patients life before they show symptoms or the formation of cyst on their kidneys which are associated with polycystic kidney disease. Early diagnosis of this disease means that drugs for the prevention of cyst formation such as Jinarc © which contains the API Tolvaptan can prolong a patients kidney function by slowing down the rate at which the fluid filled cysts on the kidneys are formed. This method is used to identify a mutation of the polycystin-1 protein which attributes to 85% of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease cases. The other 15% is made up of mutations of the protein polycystin-2. Fibrocystin is the mutated protein responsible for autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. Both the dominant and recessive forms of this disease can be diagnosed using the above method in order to identify a mutation in either polycystin-2 or fibrocystin proteins if there is no mutation of polycystin-1 observed. From the above sections, it can be seen how sever and prominent polycystic kidney disease is worldwide. Although this disease is genetically inherited from or both parents, symptoms of the disease are slow progressing. In 85% of cases the disease will not advance to renal failure until the patient is 50-60 years of age. The current diagnostic techniques currently used by doctors such as imaging and genetic testing have their benefits however they are also flawed. The major disadvantage seen in this project regarding the current diagnostic techniques is the diagnosis of polycystic kidney disease in a patient where uncontrolled cyst formation has already occurred and serious renal problems have begun. With the use of our new proteomic technique earlier diagnosis will be possible before the disease has progressed to renal failure. Early diagnosis means that the use of drugs such as Tolvaptan © can be used to significantly slow down cyst formation which will ultimately increase the length of time a patient suffering with polycystic kidney disease has before renal failure occurs. 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